DISCIPLINE-BASED LITERATURE REVIEW
Running head: DISCIPLINE-BASED LITERATURE REVIEW 1
Discipline-Based Literature Review
Junius Applewhite
PSY 620
Professor: Jeral Kirwan
January 22, 2018
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DISCIPLINE-BASED LITERATURE REVIEW 2
Discipline-Based Literature Review
Introduction
Every human being in the world since birth until the time of death spends a huge amount
of time learning new things. People also learn how to improve what they already know or
learned in the past. Even though other forms of animals learn too, human beings are more
advanced in learning because they actually study the diverse means of learning, refining and
classifying material through Learning and Cognition discipline. Generally, this paper highlights
some constructs or categories that build some of the most current works in learning and
cognition. Besides focusing on these constructs, this paper will highlight any ethical concerns
that may be in existence. Among the constructs that will be featured in this paper is Operant
conditioning, Classical conditioning, Behaviorism and Social learning theory
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning is a learning method that was developed by B. F. Skinner and that
occurs through punishments and rewards for behavior. There is a link created between behaviors
and consequences in operant conditioning. Practically, operant conditioning is a reversible
behavior study maintained through schedules of reinforcements (Saul, 2015). According to
operant conditioning, learning of a behavior cannot be achieved just through motivations and
internal thoughts. Skinner believed that a behavior’s external causes should be the only
considerations. Skinner’s theory of ‘operant’ only considers external factors that have effect on
a behavior as well as its consequences. Under operant conditioning, there are reinforcements and
punishments which both have effects on behavior.
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1. since birth
from birth [Jeral Kirwan]
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Reinforcement involves a process where a behavior’s frequency or rate is increased
through presenting a stimulus soon after the behavior display. The event that leads to
enhancement of probability of a behavior being repeated is known as a reinforcer. Reinforcers
are in two categories which include positive reinforcers and negative reinforcers. Positive
reinforcers are encouraging or favorable stimuli given after a behavior display. They strengthen
the chances of a behavior through provision of an extra thing. For instance, a student rewarded
for passing an exam is likely to work hard again and pass more exams so that he can get more
rewards. On the other hand, negative reinforce is the removal of unfavorable stimuli after a
behavior display. With the removal of unfavorable stimuli, the response or behavior is made
stronger. Both reinforcements lead to increment of a behavior.
Unlike rein-forcers, punishment is a process where presentation of a stimulus leads to
decline in behavior occurrence. Punishments are categorized in two; negative punishments and
positive punishments. Positive punishment is where something is added which leads to reduction
in behavior repetition. On the other hand, negative punishment is where something that is loved
is removed to minimize the probability of a behavior happening again. An example of positive
punishment is a child spanked for teasing another. An example of negative punishment is a
teenager deprived the privilege of going out with friends after failing an exam.
One major ethical issue with operant conditioning is that it has some manipulation
feature and it is does not give a permanent solution to an issue. This theory fails to teach the
required skills that a person needs in life to become a success such as compromise, decision-
making and bargaining. Practically, operant conditioning fails in meeting its desired goals. In
many case, the desired behavior is not achieved and if it is achieved it sometimes does not last
for long (Lumen, 2017). For instance, a child that only reads and passes exams for reward may
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1
2
3
1. rein-forcers,
reinforcement [Jeral Kirwan]
2. conditioning is that it has
some manipulation
feature and it is does not
give a permanent solution
to an issue.
How so? [Jeral Kirwan]
3. Practically, operant
conditioning fails in
meeting its desired goals.
How? What are the goals?
[Jeral Kirwan]
DISCIPLINE-BASED LITERATURE REVIEW 4
fail to work hard if the rewards are no longer available. This is wrong since no social skills have
been impacted on the child to help him/her realize the need to work hard in life.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning also called Pavlovian conditioning is an automatic or reflexive
form of learning where stimulus get the ability to induce a response that originally was induced
by a different stimulus. Normally, the pairing of stimulus involve neutral stimulus and
biologically built stimulus. The theory was investigated by a Russian physiologist called Ivan
Pavlov who came up with a way of connecting two unrelated stimulus to elicit some form of
reaction. With natural conditioning, a neutral signal is placed before a reflex that naturally
occurs. Pavlov conducted an experience with dogs where the dogs salivated in food response
when they heard the sound of a bell. Initially, the bell was rung in presence of food and therefore
even without seeing food the dogs still salivated (Saul, 2014).
Classical conditioning is made up of three phases. The first phase is called before
conditioning where a stimulus that is naturally occurring automatically educes a response. A
good example of naturally occurring stimulus is salivating to food smell. In this phase,
unconditioned stimulus leads to unconditioned response. In our example food presentation is
unconditioned stimulus while salivation is unconditioned response. The second phase of classical
conditioning is called during conditioning phase. In this phase neutral stimulus is paired with
unconditioned stimuli repeatedly. As a result of the pairing, an association is created between the
two hence making the earlier neutral stimuli a conditioned stimulus. The last phase is the after
conditioning phase. After the creation of the UCS and CS link, the conditioned stimulus is able
to stir up a response even in absence of the unconditioned stimulus. This response is referred to a
conditioned response. In the example above, hunger and salivation will be evoked by the smell
of food (Saul, 2014).
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Even though classical conditioning is based on empirical evidence and is science based, it
has some ethical issues in that it is not easy to describe behavior only on basis of nature or
nurture. Another issue with this theory is that it is deterministic, meaning that it does not permit
any free will from the participant. This means that a person lacks control of the learned reactions
such as phobia. This shows that this law denies people their free will of choosing personal
destiny (Moore, 2012).
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a methodical approach to understanding humans and animals behavior. It
is a psychological approach where objective and scientific methods of research are emphasized.
Behaviorism is mainly concern with behaviors that are observable and believes that it is only
through environmental interaction that behavior is learned. According to this theory, all
behaviors can be physically explained with no need to reflect on consciousness or mental states
(David, 2007). Behaviorism works on the assumption that a learner is in essence unreceptive,
reacting to environmental stimuli. In the beginning, the learner is similar to a clean slate until
when he is instilled behavior through either positive reinforcement or through negative
reinforcement. Whether through positive or negative reinforcement, the probability of a person’s
antecedent behavior repeating itself is increased.
On the contrary, positive and negative punishment reduces the likelihood that antecedent
performance will occur again. Positive punishment is when there is appliance of a stimulus while
Negative punishment is when there is preservation of a stimulus. Majority of behaviorist work
was performed with animals such as the Pavlov’s dogs before being applied to humans.
Behaviorism leads the worldview of cognitivist. It supports logical positivism but it does not
support structuralism. Based on empirical research, Behaviorism only considers behaviors that
are observable. According to some behaviorists any person has the capability of being trained to
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execute a task of any nature, despite of the hereditary background, character traits, and inside
thoughts. All that is needed in Behaviorism is right conditioning (Mills, 2010).
Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory consists of dissimilar cognitive learning theory and behavioral
learning theory. This combination was done by Psychologist Albert Bandura who created four
learning requirements that include observation which is environmental; retention which is
cognitive; reproduction which is also cognitive; and motivation which is a combination of
environmental and cognitive. This integrative learning approach was termed as social learning
theory. Bandura came up with a very famous experiment known as bobo doll experiment.
Children looked on as adults molded passive or cruelty conduct to the doll, and this surveillance
was established to regulate the technique in which the youth afterward interrelated with the
dolls. Youth that observed cruel performances on the doll ended up being violent toward the doll
while those that witnessed passive behavior were nice towards the doll.
The Social Learning Theory as per Bandura posits that people gain knowledge from one
another through imitation, modeling and watching others. “This theory is in many cases referred
to as a bridge between cognitive and behaviorist learning theories since it includes memory,
motivation and attention” (David, 2015). Bandura believed that behavior was influenced by
reciprocal determinism, meaning that the an individual’s behavior and the world cause one
another, while behaviorism on the other hand believed that one’s behavior is caused by one’s
environment. While studying aggression of teenagers, Bandura found out that addition affected
environment just like the environment caused addiction too. Bandura later discovered that
personality is communication between three apparatus that include the environment, personal
psychological processes and behavior. “Generally, Social learning theory is seen as a bridge
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between cognitive and behaviorist learning theories since it includes memory, attention, and
motivation” (Grusec, 2012).
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is true that every human being in the world since birth until the time of
death spends a huge amount of time learning new things. There are different theories that have
different thoughts on how learning is attained. According to B. F. Skinner through his theory of
Operant conditioning, learning occurs through punishments and rewards for behavior. There is a
link created between behaviors and consequences in operant conditioning. Classical conditioning
on the other hand is an automatic or reflexive form of learning where stimulus get the ability to
induce a response that originally was induced by a different stimulus. Behaviorism is a
methodical approach to understanding humans and animals behavior. It is a psychological
approach where objective and scientific methods of research are emphasized. Finally, Social
learning theory by Psychologist Albert Bandura is a combination of cognitive learning theory
and behavioral learning theory.
Reference
David, L. (2007). “Behaviorism,” in Learning Theories. Retrieved from https://www.learning-
theories.com/behaviorism.html
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2
1. 2012).
Only include page numbers
with direct quotes. [Jeral
Kirwan]
2. Conclusion
You described the four
theories pretty well, but some
statements need more
elaboration as noted in
previous comments. [Jeral
Kirwan]
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David, L. (2015) “Social Learning Theory (Bandura),” in Learning TheoriesRetrieved from
Grusec, J. (2012). “Social learning theory and developmental psychology: The legacies of
Robert Sears and Albert Bandura”. Developmental Psychology
Lumen, L. (2017). Problems of Operant Conditioning; Problems with Operant Conditioning and
Human Behavior. Retrieved from
https://lumen.instructure.com/courses/170090/pages/problems-of-operant-conditioning
Mills, J. (2010). Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology. New York: NYU Press
Moore, J. (2012). A Neuroscientist’s Guide to Classical Conditioning, Springer Science &
Business Media
Saul, M. (2014). Classical Conditioning. Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html
Saul, M. (2015). Skinner – Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from
https://simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
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1. M. (2014). Classical
Conditioning. Retrieved
from
https://www.simplypsychol
ogy.org/classical-
conditioning.html
Saul, M. (2015). Skinner –
Operant Conditioning.
Retrieved from
https://simplypsychology.or
g/operant-conditioning.html
These are not scholarly peer-
reviewed sources. [Jeral
Kirwan]
